WHAT DO PHILOSOPHERS BELIEVE?

And what do people ask them in mid-air? Anthony Gottlieb decodes an unusual opinion poll ...
From INTELLIGENT LIFE Magazine, Spring 2010
There was once a website on which academic philosophers listed the curious things that strangers had said to them upon learning that they were in the presence of a philosopher. The following conversation allegedly took place on an aeroplane:
“May I ask you a question?”“Yes.”“It’s a philosophical question. Is that ok?”“Sure.”“There’s a boy I fancy. Should I text him or e-mail him?”
In a similar vein, also from the skies:
“What do you do?”“I’m a philosopher.”“What are some of your sayings, then?”
This exchange makes professional philosophers titter, because their daily work is far removed from the production of sage utterances. But the request for “sayings” was not an unreasonable one. The great philosophers of old are remembered largely by their posthumous contributions to dictionaries of quotations. How is an ordinary person to know what today’s professional philosophers think?
One answer – a novel one, it seems – comes from a new survey of philosophers’ views. A preliminary analysis of the results has been published in an electronic journal, PhilPapers. Unfortunately, however, the survey was written for philosophy nerds. So here is a translation for airline passengers.
First, some background. The questions are geared to what’s known as the “analytical” type of philosophy, which now dominates university philosophy departments in the West and almost monopolises those in English-speaking countries. The pioneers of this movement, which first took root in Britain in the first half of the 20th century, include Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein. It is a broad church nowadays, but on the whole, analytical philosophy models its approach on the natural sciences. Researchers, sometimes working more or less in teams, divide problems into small pieces and try out different solutions to them one by one. The writings of the analytical school combine plain-speaking with technical terms that are precisely defined in the style of scientific terminology (or at least, they are supposed to be).
This movement is often contrasted with “Continental” philosophy, which is more expansive and synoptic, tends to see itself as allied to literary, cultural and social studies, and is more likely to draw on subjective experience. The big names of “Continental” philosophy are mostly French (Sartre, Derrida, Foucault) or German (Heidegger), but the term is doubly misleading. Many of the founders of analytical philosophy came from continental Europe, too; and the stronghold of “Continental” philosophy nowadays is in fact in literary and cultural studies departments in Britain and America.
The PhilPapers study, by David Chalmers of the Australian National University and David Bourget of London University, surveyed academics at 99 leading philosophy departments around the globe, over 90% of them in the English-speaking world and nearly two-thirds in America. Some 91% of the respondents thought they belonged to the analytic tradition and 4% the “Continental” one. When asked which dead philosopher they most identified with, a clear winner emerged, with 21% of the votes: David Hume, the 18th-century thinker, historian, sceptic and agnostic who was a close friend of the economist Adam Smith. Aristotle, Kant and Wittgenstein took second, third and fourth places. The next six spots went to philosophers from the 20th century, most recently Donald Davidson, an American who died in 2003. Plato made 13th place and Socrates limped in at 21st.
Of the three topics that Immanuel Kant once said were the proper subjects of metaphysics – namely God, freedom and immortality – the survey covers only the first two, perhaps because these days life is too short to bother with immortality. Free will gets a thumbs-up: only 12% of philosophers think that people’s lives are predestined. But God gets the thumbs-down: nearly three-quarters accept or lean towards atheism. This is only to be expected. Even in America, which is unusually religious for a rich country, the top echelons of those who think for a living tend to be unbelievers. A survey of the members of America’s elite National Academy of Sciences in 1998 found that only 7% believed in God.
A quarter of a century ago, such a survey would have had plenty of questions about language, but now there are only three (out of 30). Analytical philosophy has shifted its attention from language to the mind, which is why there is a question about zombies – though nothing about ghouls, demons or vampires. By a “zombie”, today’s philosophers mean a hypothetical being who is physically indistinguishable from a normal person but is not conscious. Philosophers argue about whether or not such a creature could exist in theory, and on the whole they are pretty undecided about it. A small majority endorse “physicalism” about the mind, which is the theory that all mental states are in fact physical states. Many of the pioneers of the 20th-century version of this view hailed from Australia, which led one philosophical wag to surmise that Australia is the only country in which it is true.
Contrary to a widespread caricature, it emerges that most philosophers do not go around doubting the existence of physical objects (and thus colliding with them). Some 82% of the respondents accept or are inclined towards “non-sceptical realism” about the external world, which means they believe both that physical objects exist independently of the minds that perceive them, and that we can be said to know of their existence. Some 4.8%, though, are inclined to deny that we have certain knowledge of the existence of physical objects, and 4.2% accept or lean towards “idealism”, which is the theory that matter somehow depends on mind. As for the status of so-called “abstract” objects, such as numbers, the most popular view (scoring 39%, narrowly ahead of its closest rival) is “Platonism”, according to which abstract objects have a real existence independently of our minds.
By a fairly narrow margin, today’s philosophers believe that judgments of artistic value are not merely matters of individual taste: 41% said aesthetic values are objective, 34% say subjective, and a quarter gave some other answer. They were not asked directly whether moral values are objective, but the responses to related questions suggest that most philosophers believe they are. Some 56% incline towards “moral realism”, which has no precise definition but implies that ethical questions have objectively right (and wrong) answers, and nearly two-thirds endorsed moral “cognitivism”, which suggests that they believe there are moral facts or truths. The results reveal little about political views, as the one question about politics is unhelpfully phrased. Respondents were asked to choose between egalitarianism (34.7%), communitarianism (14.2%) and libertarianism (9.8%); over 40% were unwilling to choose for one reason or another.
In five other questions 15% or more of the philosophers said they were too unfamiliar with the issue to give an opinion. Philosophy is now a highly specialised discipline. A don working on, say, ethics, may not even know the terminology used by logicians, and vice versa. This will be grist to the mill of those who feel that analytical philosophy has given up dealing with the big questions of life and is now mired in technical minutiae. But not so fast. Even Plato was attacked in his own time for treating philosophy as if it were all mathematics. And 1,800 years ago the great doctor Galen moaned about “the over-refined linguistic quibbling of some philosophers”.
People have always wanted philosophers to provide digestible wisdom, yet it is as true now as it was in Plato’s time that disciplined thinking is hard. So next time you sit next to a philosopher on a plane, talk about the movie, not the meaning of life.
(Anthony Gottlieb is a visiting scholar at New York University and a former executive editor of The Economist. He is also the author of author of "The Dream of Reason: A History of Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance".)
Picture credit: Arenamontanus (via Flickr)
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Whosoever is more right than his neighbor
March 29, 2010 - 03:30 — Visitor Shalom Freedman (not verified)Thoreau said 'Whosoever is more right than his neighbor already constitutes a majority of one.' Thoreau may not have been an academic philosopher capable of telling us how many predicates there are on the pin of a needle but he was a real thinker, and one for whom 'wisdom of life' is a first subject.
Counting opinions is sociology but I do not believe it tells us much about 'real thought'.
I do not follow the academic philosophical journals anymore and so do not know whether most of the articles are of scant interest to the general reader and thinker as they used to be.
But it seems to me real thought about life and the world comes not from 'teams of small minds' but from giants whose thought cannot be confined to a formal discipline.
'What are some of your
March 29, 2010 - 04:09 — Some Kant (not verified)'What are some of your sayings?' is only ridiculous when posed to an analytic philosopher. If most people fail to conceive of philosophy as sciency conceptual analysis, is the joke really on the public?
a philosopher would of
March 29, 2010 - 05:08 — andrew (not verified)a philosopher would of course have told the young woman that she should go backwards rather then forwards to look for a solution and that might have revealed a more likely successful solution to her problem
of
course he hopefully would have pointed out that todays success is tomorrows failure
the academic world is a wasteland i am afraid
uselessly arid
@andrew The academic world
March 29, 2010 - 06:16 — Visitor (not verified)@andrew The academic world may be uselessly arid but at least you learn to say "would HAVE" instead of "would of."
A shame
March 29, 2010 - 06:58 — Me not you (not verified)It is such a shame that this survey did little more than reinforce the limited view of philosophy that is held by most in philosophy faculties of the US, UK, Canada and Australia. Philosophers in Europe, Asia, and elsewhere were underrepresented in the sample, and so we are left with an idea that philosophy is just a game where you choose which 'side' you support, much like a football team.
Take this question: "External world: idealism, skepticism, or non-skeptical realism?" Did I miss something in my years studying philosophy? I wasn't aware that from thousands of years of thought, all the problems of how we know the external world can be boiled down to these three 'answers'.
Some Kant above is right. Philosophy has lost its way.
@visitor I think you'll find
March 29, 2010 - 07:01 — Me not you (not verified)@visitor
I think you'll find that andrew did say would HAVE, he just misplaced a few commas, as in:
"a philosopher would, of course, have told the young woman.."
What are your some of your sayings
March 29, 2010 - 07:43 — rgeldard (not verified)If asked about favorite sayings, I would say:
A Man is what he thinks about all day -- Emerson
The road up and the road down are the same -- Heraclitus
There are two kinds of people in the world: those who divide things into twos and those who don't --- Me
Philistine philosophy
March 29, 2010 - 08:26 — JIm Brennan (not verified)When everything from nutrition to experience is dispensed in real or virtual tablet form it is hardly surprising philosophy needs to be sized for quick and conspicuous consumption. How can brilliance be conveyed without quoting proper sources like a computer? (The real triumphs in AI have been on the human side.) Where would we be if everyone started developing their own ideas? We could not discern the enlightened from the functionaries; facts would be reduced to beliefs. Reality itself would be altered. As long as there are experts, ideas will be meted out in proper order and facts will be protected from the horde.
Shakespeare's Polonius captured it nicely.
How amusing to see the
March 29, 2010 - 10:00 — Kevin (not verified)How amusing to see the blissful ignorance of Nietzsche--arising, I suspect, from the abuse of his thought by Post-Structuralists--among the philosophers polled here. Only someone who has not encountered Nietzsche could advocate with a straight face such untenable idiocy as mathematical Platonism, or the objective standing of aesthetic taste, morality, and other personal value-judgments.
Philosophy: off the menue!
March 29, 2010 - 10:07 — Robert Landbeck (not verified)There is probably nothing less palatable or digestible for the mind than philosophy. This ancient intellectual hangover, which probably only survives because men are so easily impressed by their own linguistic gymnastics, even though they accomplish nothing, and theologies need of an intellectual framework for its own self deceptions in trying to comprehend the mind of God, is, like theology, well past it's sell by date. This after the fact pretense to wisdom in hindsight is of course ass-backwards. It fails to offer any basis of sound judgment, no path to knowledge of any practical value and offers no means to infuse even what it pretends to outside its own devotees. Philosophy presupposes potential to natural reason that is itself pure vanity. Science in that respect exists because the mind cannot be trusted to know, thus it seeks objective confirmation outside the mind. Whatever philosophy believes, there is no such thing as "pure reason" within the mind of man. Philosophy: R.I.P.
Philosophers!
March 29, 2010 - 10:14 — Visitor (not verified)What's really preposterous is that academics have the arrogance to call themselves "philosophers". They're no more philosophers than art historians are artists or english professors are authors.
The right question
March 29, 2010 - 10:41 — Visitor (not verified)'What are some of your sayings' is the correct question to pose to a philosopher. How else to assess philosophers but by what they say, and especially by what they regard as important enough to render pithily?
Questioning philosophers...
March 29, 2010 - 10:44 — Tony (not verified)....ALWAYS leads to disappointment:
"I 'ad that Bertrand Russell in the back of my cab one day, so I asked 'im: 'What's it all about then, Lord Russell'. And do you know, 'E COULDN'T TELL ME!"
"those who think for a
March 29, 2010 - 11:24 — The Man (not verified)"those who think for a living tend"
I suspect that the author is being deliberately provocative here since many of the people who think for a living think that philosophers do no such thing. Nevertheless, an interesting article.
commas
March 29, 2010 - 12:04 — Perle (not verified)The writer does use "have." What's missing are commas to set off "of course."
The Movie
March 29, 2010 - 13:49 — Movie Critic (not verified)Traditionally, so I'm told, one set about to "be a philosopher."
Then by a subsequent linguistic turn, one merely set about to "do philosophy."
Not quite knowing what's what, at last one set about to "say [the world] philosophically."
If so, maybe the apt onboard movie to discuss is Being There.
The Movie
March 29, 2010 - 13:52 — Movie Critic (not verified)Traditionally, so I'm told, one set about to "be a philosopher."
Then, by a subsequent linguistic turn, one merely set about to "do philosophy."
Not quite knowing what's what, at last one set about to "say [the world] philosophically."
If so, maybe the apt onboard movie to discuss is "Being There."
Those crazy philosophers!
March 29, 2010 - 14:08 — Banjo (not verified)Lapham's Quarterly has an interesting article about when A.J. Ayer died for a time:
http://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/roundtable/an-atheist-meets-t...
He was revived but died for good eleven months later after having become quite friendly with a Catholic theologian. He did not recant the atheism that evidently is a requirement for membership in the philosopher's guild, but it seems possible his certitude was shaken. What was additionally interesting was Ayer's admission that he couldn't understand Wittgenstein. Bertrand Russell couldn't either. Are the people who say they do fibbing?
Hmmm
March 29, 2010 - 15:06 — Jm (not verified)Never have I read a more stunningly efficient indictment of Hume.
I am reminded of the scene
March 29, 2010 - 15:59 — Marc (not verified)I am reminded of the scene in Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy where they threaten a national philosopher's strike and receive the reply "Who will that hurt?"
Autogenerated Subject Line
March 29, 2010 - 16:51 — azimuth (not verified)Of course, one should read the full response before getting snarky, not just the subject line-- which is, of course, automatically generated from the first few words of the post (if left blank--which, of course, it often is).
Philosophy should be practical
March 29, 2010 - 17:03 — Visitor (not verified)Philosophy is nothing but the effort to think coherently about problems. They may be large problems, and they may be small problems.
I would submit that the email versus text problem would in fact be amenable to philosophical analysis.
I have a dream, that one day all philosophers, when asked what they do, will answer "solve concrete problems". And when asked for a word of advice, reply with "what are you trying to do?".
Have and have nots
March 29, 2010 - 17:29 — Jim Brennan (not verified)There now, a solution to the problem of the haves and the have-nots worked out right here in the comments. Who says philosophy can't be practical as well as stimulating?
He writes "would of course
March 29, 2010 - 18:35 — Ben Murphy (not verified)He writes "would of course have": "of" is not here being pressed into service as an auxiliary verb.
"Some 56% incline towards
March 29, 2010 - 18:43 — Visitor (not verified)"Some 56% incline towards “moral realism”, which has no precise definition but implies that ethical questions have objectively right (and wrong) answers, and nearly two-thirds endorsed moral “cognitivism”, which suggests that they believe there are moral facts or truths."
Hardly. Both moral realism and moral cognitivism have precise definitions -- and while your definition of realism isn't bad, the cognitivism one is way off.
Moral cognitivism is the view that moral statements (such as "Murder is wrong") actually do express propositions, rather than being equivalent to commands ("Don't murder!") or mere expressions of emotion ("Murder, yuck!")
Moral realism is the view that some moral claims are moreover objectively true, for instance that "Murder is wrong" actually describes a fact of the universe.
Realism entails cognitivism, but not vice versa -- anyone who is a realist is also a cognitivist, but not every cognitivist is a realist. For instance, you can be a cognitivist but a moral skeptic (believing that all moral propositions are false), or a moral relativist (believing that moral propositions are specific to an individual or culture).
Stoicism
March 29, 2010 - 18:51 — John Shaplin (not verified)"To an egotistical, hedonistic modern audience, Marcus Aurelius's strictures on pleasure and the indulgences of sleeping, copulating and over-eating seem neurotic, and Stoicism itself seems over-rational and joyless. Marcus still has a certain vogue, but only because his so-called modern admirers tend to cherry- pick the convenient parts of his doctrine and ignore the rest."
"Marcus Aurelius: A Life" by Frank McLynn Da Capo Press, Perseus Books, 2009
"What if Marcus Aurelius's sense of duty and resignation were, in the first place, products of his individual temperament, of the melancholic disposition, if one wants to be precise; combined perhaps with the man's aging? There are, after all, only four main humors; so at least the melancholics among us can take "Meditations" to heart and skip the bit about historical perspective nobody possesses anyhow. As for the sanguinics, cholerics, and phlegmatics, they, too, perhaps should admit that the melancholic version of ethics is accommodating enough for them to marvel at its pedigree and chronology. Perhaps short of compulsory Stoic indoctrination, society may profit by making a detectable melancholic streak a prerequisite for anyone aspiring to rule it. To this extent, a democracy can afford what an empire could. And on top of that, one shouldn't call the Stoic acceptance of the perceptible reality resignation. Serenity would be more apt, given the ratio between man and the subjects of his attention, or- as the case might be- vice versa. A grain of sand can't resign itself to the desert; and perhaps hat's ultimately good about melancholics is that they seldom get hysterical, By and large, they are quite reasonable, and, "what is reasonable," as Marcus once said, "is consequently social." Did he say this in Greek, to fit your idea of antiquity?""
Joseph Brodsky in "Homage to Marcus Aurelius"
What about this one?
March 29, 2010 - 19:33 — Banjo (not verified)What if the question is "Can modern philosophy be beat as a way of wasting time and thought?"
Re: Banjo - What if the
March 29, 2010 - 22:50 — Alice Fraser (not verified)Re: Banjo - What if the question is "Can modern philosophy be beat as a way of wasting time and thought?"
Thought is rarely wasted.
Oh, Emmanual Kant was a real
March 29, 2010 - 23:08 — Visitor (not verified)Oh, Emmanual Kant was a real pissant who was very rarely stable....
is an academic philosophers l
March 30, 2010 - 07:10 — andrew (not verified)is
an
academic
philosophers
life
more
meaningless
than
everyone
else?
i
think
the
answer
is
yes
i
think
its
the
contradiction
of
not
doing
what
they
claim
to
do